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<title>New Complexity</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">New Complexity</span></span>

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<p><b>New Complexity</b> is a <a href="Composition_school" title="Composition school">composition school</a> in <a href="20th-century_classical_music" title="20th-century classical music">20th-century classical music</a> where composers seek a "complex, multi-layered interplay of <a href="Developing_variation" title="Developing variation">evolutionary</a> processes occurring simultaneously within every <a href="Elements_of_music" title="Elements of music">dimension</a> of the musical material".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFox2001_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFox2001-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2></div>

<p>Though often <a href="Atonal" class="mw-redirect" title="Atonal">atonal</a>, highly abstract, and <a href="Consonance_and_dissonance" title="Consonance and dissonance">dissonant</a> in sound, New Complexity music is most readily characterized by the use of techniques which require complex <a href="Musical_notation" title="Musical notation">musical notation</a>. This includes <a href="Extended_technique" title="Extended technique">extended techniques</a>, complex and often unstable <a href="Texture_(music)" title="Texture (music)">textures</a>, <a href="Microtonality" title="Microtonality">microtonality</a>, highly disjunct <a href="Melodic_motion" title="Melodic motion">melodic contour</a>, complex layered rhythms, abrupt changes in texture, and so on. It is also characterized, in contrast to the music of the immediate post–World War II <a href="Serialism" title="Serialism">serialists</a>, by the frequent reliance of its composers on poetic conceptions, very often implied in the titles of individual works and work-cycles.

</p><p>The origin of the name <i>New Complexity</i> is uncertain; amongst the candidates suggested for having coined it are the composer <a href="Nigel_Osborne" title="Nigel Osborne">Nigel Osborne</a>, the Belgian musicologist <a href="Harry_Halbreich" title="Harry Halbreich">Harry Halbreich</a>, and the British-Australian musicologist <a href="Richard_Toop" title="Richard Toop">Richard Toop</a>, who gave currency to the concept of a movement with his article "Four Facets of the New Complexity";<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEToop1988_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEToop1988-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Toop's article emphasizes the individuality of four composers (<a href="Richard_Barrett_(composer)" title="Richard Barrett (composer)">Richard Barrett</a>, Chris Dench, <a href="James_Dillon_(composer)" title="James Dillon (composer)">James Dillon</a>, and <a href="Michael_Finnissy" title="Michael Finnissy">Michael Finnissy</a>), both in terms of their working methods and the sound of their compositions, and demonstrates that they did not constitute a unified "school of thought".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoros199492–93_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoros199492–93-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In the UK, particularly at the instigation of ensembles Suoraan and later Ensemble Exposé, works by "New Complexity" composers were for some time frequently programmed together with then unfashionable non-UK composers including <a href="Iannis_Xenakis" title="Iannis Xenakis">Xenakis</a> and <a href="Morton_Feldman" title="Morton Feldman">Feldman</a>, but also such diverse figures as <a href="Clarence_Barlow" title="Clarence Barlow">Clarence Barlow</a>, <a href="Hans-Joachim_Hespos" title="Hans-Joachim Hespos">Hans-Joachim Hespos</a>, and <a href="Heinz_Holliger" title="Heinz Holliger">Heinz Holliger</a>.

</p><p>Although the British influence, via the teaching efforts of <a href="Brian_Ferneyhough" title="Brian Ferneyhough">Brian Ferneyhough</a> and Michael Finnissy, was decisive in the origins of this movement, initial support came not from British institutions but rather from performers and promoters of new music in continental Europe, particularly at the <a href="Darmst%C3%A4dter_Ferienkurse" title="Darmstädter Ferienkurse">Darmstädter Ferienkurse</a> where Ferneyhough coordinated the composition courses from 1984 to 1992.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFox199321–25_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFox199321–25-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Ferneyhough's <i><a href="Etudes_Transcendantales" class="mw-redirect" title="Etudes Transcendantales">Etudes Transcendantales</a></i>, a <a href="Song_cycle" title="Song cycle">song cycle</a> for soprano and chamber ensemble, demonstrates many traits found in New Complexity music. In addition to being generally difficult to learn and perform, the pitch vocabulary makes heavy use of microtones—in this case, <a href="Equal_temperament" title="Equal temperament">equal-tempered</a> <a href="Quarter_tone" title="Quarter tone">quarter tones</a>. It also contains many <a href="Tuplet" title="Tuplet">tuplets</a> of unusual ratios which are nested in multiple layers. Rapid changes, sometimes from note to note, happen in dynamics, articulation, and playing technique, including techniques such as <a href="Multiphonic" title="Multiphonic">multiphonics</a> on the oboe, glottal stops for the voice, and key-clicking for the flute. According to Richard Toop, the rhythm for the oboe part in the first song is almost totally determined by a strict system with five stages of complexity, each governed by its own cycle of numbers.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="International_spread">International spread</h2></div>

<p>By 1997, the composers associated with the New Complexity had become an international and geographically disjunctive movement, spread across North America, Europe, and Australia, many of them with little connection to the Darmstadt courses, and with considerable divergence amongst themselves in styles and techniques.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFox2001_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFox2001-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can be seen in the range of nationalities of composers interested in this aesthetic direction, the international interest of ensembles in this music, and the impact of teachers such as James Dillon, <a href="Claus-Steffen_Mahnkopf" title="Claus-Steffen Mahnkopf">Claus-Steffen Mahnkopf</a>, and Brian Ferneyhough in both Germany and the United States.

</p><p>One example of the international spread of the movement can be found in the <a href="Bludenzer_Tage_zeitgem%C3%A4%C3%9Fer_Musik" title="Bludenzer Tage zeitgemäßer Musik">Bludenzer Tage zeitgemäßer Musik</a> during the leadership of the composer Wolfram Schurig from 1995 to 2006. Although numerous other compositional directions were represented as well, this festival was prominent during this decade for its support of composers associated with the New Complexity, in many respects replacing the Darmstadter Ferienkurse in leadership in this compositional direction. The international nature of its programming is clear from a large number of composers invited from North America; these included Ignacio Baca-Lobera from Mexico and Aaron Cassidy, Franklin Cox, Chris Mercer, Steven Takasugi, and Mark Osborn from the United States.

</p><p>There are various individual performers who have become to varying degrees closely associated with the movement, among them flautists Nancy Ruffer and Lisa Cella, oboists Christopher Redgate and Peter Veale, clarinettists <a href="Carl_Rosman" title="Carl Rosman">Carl Rosman</a>, Andrew Sparling and Michael Norsworthy, pianists Augustus Arnone, <a href="James_Clapperton" title="James Clapperton">James Clapperton</a>, <a href="Nicolas_Hodges" title="Nicolas Hodges">Nicolas Hodges</a>, Mark Knoop, Marilyn Nonken, <a href="Mark_Gasser" title="Mark Gasser">Mark Gasser</a>, Ermis Theodorakis, and <a href="Ian_Pace" title="Ian Pace">Ian Pace</a>, violinists Mieko Kanno and Mark Menzies, cellists <a href="Franklin_Cox" title="Franklin Cox">Franklin Cox</a>, Arne Deforce and Friedrich Gauwerky. A number of ensembles are also known for performing New Complexity works, such as the <a href="Arditti_Quartet" title="Arditti Quartet">Arditti Quartet</a>, <a href="JACK_Quartet" title="JACK Quartet">JACK Quartet</a>, Ensemble Exposé, <a href="Thallein_Ensemble" class="mw-redirect" title="Thallein Ensemble">Thallein Ensemble</a>, Ensemble 21, Ensemble SurPlus, and <a href="ELISION_Ensemble" title="ELISION Ensemble">ELISION Ensemble</a>. Works by Ferneyhough and Dillon, in particular, have been taken on by a wider range of European ensembles, including <a href="Ensemble_recherche" title="Ensemble recherche">ensemble recherche</a>, Ensemble Accroche-Note, the Nieuw Ensemble, and Ensemble Contrechamps.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_notable_composers">Other notable composers</h2></div>

<ul><li><a href="Mark_Andre" title="Mark Andre">Mark Andre</a> (France)</li>

<li><a href="Jo%C3%ABl-Fran%C3%A7ois_Durand" title="Joël-François Durand">Joël-François Durand</a> (France)</li>

<li><a href="Jason_Eckardt" title="Jason Eckardt">Jason Eckardt</a> (US)</li>

<li><a href="James_Erber" title="James Erber">James Erber</a> (UK)</li>

<li><a href="Arthur_Kampela" title="Arthur Kampela">Arthur Kampela</a> (Brazil/US)</li>

<li><a href="Matthias_Pintscher" title="Matthias Pintscher">Matthias Pintscher</a> (Germany)</li>

<li><a href="Saman_Samadi" title="Saman Samadi">Saman Samadi</a> (Iran/US)</li>

<li><a href="Ren%C3%A9_Wohlhauser" title="René Wohlhauser">René Wohlhauser</a> (Switzerland)</li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Avant-garde_music" title="Avant-garde music">Avant-garde music</a></li>

<li><a href="Experimental_music" title="Experimental music">Experimental music</a></li>

<li><a href="Minimal_music" title="Minimal music">Minimal music</a>

<ul><li><a href="Holy_minimalism" title="Holy minimalism">Holy minimalism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Neue_Musik" title="Neue Musik">Neue Musik</a></li>

<li><a href="New_Simplicity" title="New Simplicity">New Simplicity</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoros199492–93-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoros199492–93_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoros1994">Boros 1994</a>, 92–93.</span>

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<p><b>Sources</b>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFBoros1994" class="citation journal cs1">Boros, James (Winter 1994). "Why Complexity? (Part Two) (Guest Editor's Introduction)"". <i><a href="Perspectives_of_New_Music" title="Perspectives of New Music">Perspectives of New Music</a></i>. <b>32</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">90–</span>101. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F833155">10.2307/833155</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/833155">833155</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFFox1993" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Christopher_Fox_(composer)" title="Christopher Fox (composer)">Fox, Christopher</a> (1993). "British Music at Darmstadt 1982–92". <i><a href="Tempo_(journal)" title="Tempo (journal)">Tempo</a></i> (186): <span class="nowrap">21–</span>25. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0040298200003065">10.1017/S0040298200003065</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/944876">944876</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144087915">144087915</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFFox2001" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Fox, Christopher (2001). "New Complexity". <i><a href="The_New_Grove_Dictionary_of_Music_and_Musicians#Grove_Music_Online_and_Oxford_Music_Online" title="The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians">Grove Music Online</a></i> (8th ed.). <a href="Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561592630.article.51676">10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.51676</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-56159-263-0</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFToop1988" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Richard_Toop" title="Richard Toop">Toop, Richard</a> (Spring 1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/887987">"Four Facets of the 'New Complexity'"</a>. <i>Contact</i> (32): <span class="nowrap">4–</span>8. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0308-5066">0308-5066</a> – via <a href="Academia.edu" title="Academia.edu">academia.edu</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<p>A collection of articles on most of the British members of the movement can be found in the issue "Aspects of Complexity in Recent British Music", edited Tom Morgan, <i>Contemporary Music Review</i> 13, no. 1 (1995). The journal <i><a href="Perspectives_of_New_Music" title="Perspectives of New Music">Perspectives of New Music</a></i> also published a two-part "Complexity Forum", edited by James Boros, in volumes 31, no. 1 (Winter 1993): 6–85, and 32, no.1 (Winter 1994): 90–227 which included some contributions by and about composers associated with the New Complexity.

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<ul><li>Baranski, Sandrine. 2010a. "La musique en réseau, une musique de la complexité ?". Editions universitaires européennes. May, 210. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-613-1-50744-1</bdi> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://univ-lille3.academia.edu/SandrineBaranski/Papers">Book</a></li>

<li>Baranski, Sandrine. 2010b. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/6178063/Musique_et_complexit%C3%A9_la_voix_du_r%C3%A9seau_selon_Chris_Brown">"Musique et complexité: la voix du réseau selon Chris Brown"</a></li>

<li>Bortz, Graziela. 2003. <i>Rhythm in the music of <a href="Brian_Ferneyhough" title="Brian Ferneyhough">Brian Ferneyhough</a>, <a href="Michael_Finnissy" title="Michael Finnissy">Michael Finnissy</a>, and <a href="Arthur_Kampela" title="Arthur Kampela">Arthur Kampela</a> : a guide for performers</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151018012714/http://apps.appl.cuny.edu:83/F/?func=find-e&adjacent=N&find_scan_code=FIND_WRD&request=Bortz%2C+Braziela.&Search=+Search+&local_base=U-CUN01">Ph.D. Thesis, City University of New York.</a></li>

<li>Cassidy, Aaron. 2004. "Performative Physicality and Choreography as Morphological Determinants". In <i>Musical Morphology</i>, edited by <a href="Claus-Steffen_Mahnkopf" title="Claus-Steffen Mahnkopf">Claus-Steffen Mahnkopf</a>, Frank Cox, and William Schurig, 34–51. New Music and Aesthetics in the 21st Century 2. Hofheim: Wolke-Verlag. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>3-936000-13-1</bdi>.</li>

<li><a href="Franklin_Cox" title="Franklin Cox">Cox, Frank</a>. 2002. "Notes toward a Performance Practice for Complex Music" and "'Virtual' Polyphony: <i>Clairvoyance</i>, for solo violin". In <i>Polyphony and Complexity</i>, edited by Claus-Steffen Mahnkopf, Frank Cox, and William Schurig, 70–132; 162–179. New Music and Aesthetics in the 21st Century 1. Hofheim: Wolke-Verlag. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>3-936000-10-7</bdi>.</li>

<li>Cox, Frank. 2008 "<i>Recoil</i>, for Solo Cello: Background and Analysis". In <i>Facets of the Second Modernity</i>, edited by Claus-Steffen Mahnkopf, Frank Cox, and William Schurig, 57–98. New Music and Aesthetics in the 21st Century 6. Hofheim: Wolke-Verlag. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-936000-17-7</bdi>.</li>

<li>Duncan, Stuart Paul. 2010a. "Re-Complexifying the Function(s) of Notation in the Music of Brian Ferneyhough and the 'New Complexity'". <i><a href="Perspectives_of_New_Music" title="Perspectives of New Music">Perspectives of New Music</a></i> 48, no. 1 (Winter): 136–72.</li>

<li>Duncan, Stuart Paul. 2010b. "The Concept of New Complexity: Notation, Interpretation, and Analysis". D.M.A. diss.. Ithaca: Cornell University.</li>

<li>Duncan, Stuart Paul. 2010c. "To Infinity and Beyond: A Reflection on Notation, 1980s Darmstadt, and Interpretational Approaches to the Music of New Complexity". <i>Search: Journal for New Music and Culture</i> 7.</li>

<li>Friedl, Reinhold. 2002. "Some Sadomasochistic Aspects of Musical Pleasure". <i>Leonardo Musical Journal</i> 12:29–30.</li>

<li>Hoban, Wieland 2004. "Morphological Boundaries and Their Dissolution: <i>Hedone</i> for String Quintet". In <i>Musical Morphology</i>, edited by Claus-Steffen Mahnkopf, Frank Cox, and William Schurig, 132–146. New Music and Aesthetics in the 21st Century 2. Hofheim: Wolke-Verlag. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>3-936000-13-1</bdi>.</li>

<li><a href="Arthur_Kampela" title="Arthur Kampela">Kampela, Arthur</a> 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kampela.com/Xenakis%20article%20for%20_Xenakis%20Matters_%20book.pdf">"Micro-Metric Rhythms and Noises: Emanations from the Stochastic Cloud"</a>. In <i>Xenakis matters : contexts, processes, applications</i>, edited by Sharon Kanach, 1–21. Hillsdale, New York: Pendragon. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781576472385</bdi>.</li>

<li><a href="Claus-Steffen_Mahnkopf" title="Claus-Steffen Mahnkopf">Mahnkopf, Claus-Steffen</a>. 2002. "Theory of Polyphony", "Complex Music: Attempt at a Definition", "Theses Concerning Harmony Today", and "Medusa: Concerning Conception, Poetics, and Technique". In <i>Polyphony and Complexity</i>, edited by Claus-Steffen Mahnkopf, Frank Cox, and William Schurig, 38–53, 54–64, 65–69, and 245–265. Hofheim: Wolke-Verlag. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>3-936000-10-7</bdi>.</li>

<li>Mahnkopf, Claus-Steffen, Franklin Cox, and Wolfram Schurig (eds.). 2002– . Series, New Music and Aesthetics in the 21st Century. Hofheim: Wolke Verlag. [Numerous essays by and about composers associated with the New Complexity.]

<ul><li>Vol. 1: <i>Polyphony & Complexity</i> (2002) <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>3-936000-10-7</bdi>.</li>

<li>Vol. 2: <i>Musical Morphology</i> (2004) Published in collaboration with the <a href="Bludenzer_Tage_zeitgem%C3%A4%C3%9Fer_Musik" title="Bludenzer Tage zeitgemäßer Musik">Bludenzer Tage zeitgemäßer Musik</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>3-936000-13-1</bdi>.</li>

<li>Vol. 3: <i>The Foundations of Contemporary Composing</i> (2004). <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>3-936000-14-X</bdi>.</li>

<li>Vol. 4: <i>Electronics in New Music</i> (2006). <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>3-936000-15-8</bdi>.</li>

<li>Vol. 5: <i>Critical Composition Today</i> (2006). <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>3-936000-16-6</bdi>.</li>

<li>Vol. 6: <i>Facets of the Second Modernity</i> (2008). <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-936000-17-7</bdi>.</li></ul></li>

<li>Mahnkopf, Claus-Steffen. 2008. "Second Modernity—An Attempted Assessment". In <i>Facets of the Second Modernity</i>, edited by Claus-Steffen Mahnkopf, Frank Cox, and William Schurig, 9–16. New Music and Aesthetics in the 21st Century 6. Hofheim: Wolke-Verlag. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-936000-17-7</bdi>.</li>

<li><a href="Roger_Marsh" title="Roger Marsh">Marsh, Roger</a>. 1994. "Heroic Motives. Roger Marsh Considers the Relation between Sign and Sound in 'Complex' Music". <i><a href="The_Musical_Times" title="The Musical Times">The Musical Times</a></i> 135, no. 1812 (February): 83–86.</li>

<li>Redgate, Christopher. 2007. "A Discussion of Practices Used in Learning Complex Music with Specific Reference to Roger Redgate's <i>Ausgangspunkte</i>". <i>Contemporary Music Review</i> 26, no. 2 (April): 141–149.</li>

<li>Rupprecht, Philip. 2019. "Rhythmic Dignity: Motive, Signal, and Flux in the Music of James Dillon". <i>Musiktheorie</i> 34, no. 4: 347–376.</li>

<li>Schurig, Wolfram. 2008. "Formal Strategies in the Works <i>hot powdery snow...</i>, <i>Ultima Thule</i>, and <i>blick: verzaubert</i>". In <i>Facets of the Second Modernity</i>, edited by Claus-Steffen Mahnkopf, Frank Cox, and William Schurig, 205–216. Hofheim: Wolke-Verlag. New Music and Aesthetics in the 21st Century 6. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-936000-17-7</bdi>.</li>

<li><a href="Toop%2C_Richard" class="mw-redirect" title="Toop, Richard">Toop, Richard</a>. 1991. "Brian Ferneyhough's <i>Etudes Transcendantales</i>: A Composer's Diary (Part 1)". <i>Eonta</i> 1, no. 1:55–89.</li>

<li>Toop, Richard. 1993. "On Complexity". <i><a href="Perspectives_of_New_Music" title="Perspectives of New Music">Perspectives of New Music</a></i> 31, no. 1 (Winter): 42–57.</li>

<li><a href="Barry_Truax" title="Barry Truax">Truax, Barry</a>. 1994. "The Inner and Outer Complexity of Music". <i><a href="Perspectives_of_New_Music" title="Perspectives of New Music">Perspectives of New Music</a></i> 32, no. 1 (Winter): 176–193.</li>

<li>Ulman, Erik. 1994. "Some Thoughts on the New Complexity". <i><a href="Perspectives_of_New_Music" title="Perspectives of New Music">Perspectives of New Music</a></i> 32, no. 1 (Winter): 202–206.</li></ul>

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